Professor (Dr Shalini Suri) and Dr Arush Rasyotra
World Anatomy Day 2025 is celebrated on ‘October 15th”, as declared by the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA). The day honours “Andreas Vesalius”, regarded as the founder of modern human anatomy, and marks his death anniversary. It serves to highlight the significance of studying human structure and form, which is essential for medical education, research, and healthcare practice. The theme for 2025, “Global Perspectives of Anatomy,” underscores the values of unity, diversity, and international collaboration in advancing the field of anatomy.
Anatomy as a term has been derived from the Greek verb “anatomein,” which means “to cut open, to dissect”. The most important process of study of anatomy is the opening, dissecting and describing the individual body parts.
Anatomy is the oldest scientific discipline of medicine. The first scientific documented dissection on the human body was carried out in the third century B.C. in Alexandria. During that period, anatomists explored anatomy through dissections of animals, primarily pigs and monkeys. Aelius (Claudius) Galenus, a Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher in the Roman Empire, was one of the most accomplished medical researchers. He advanced multiple scientific fields—including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.
Roman law banned human dissection, so Galen studied animal anatomy, mainly primates, and made key discoveries such as describing the trachea and identifying the larynx as the organ of voice.
Galen transformed knowledge of the circulatory, nervous, and respiratory systems, showing that arteries carry blood, not air. He believed blood formed in the liver and also described the spine, nervous system, and reproductive organs, identifying ovaries as female equivalents of testes.
In the 15th–16th centuries, Leonardo da Vinci conducted human dissections with anatomist Marcantonio della Torre, and created detailed anatomical drawings. Though unpublished in his lifetime, his layered muscle studies influenced Vesalius’s *De humani corporis fabrica* (1543).
Leonardo da Vinci secretly dissected stolen corpses to study human anatomy for his art, while in the 16th century, During the 16th century the work of surgeon and anatomist “Andreas Vesalius” laid the foundation for the genuine science of anatomy, the Author of “De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem,” one of the most important works on human. Andreas Vesalius, regarded as the father of modern human anatomy, was among the first to accurately document and illustrate the human body through dissections. Vesalius produced the “humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome”, an abridged version with 11 woodblock prints showing the skeleton, muscles, nerves, veins, and arteries. Unlike the “Fabrica”, it displayed muscles in resting layers, aiding surgical practice and his detailed studies revolutionized anatomy and transformed medical science.
In the late 16th century, the criticism of professors like Girolamo Fabrici reflected a preference for hands-on dissection over theoretical approaches. Interestingly in the early 16th century, anatomical theatres became a popular method for teaching anatomy, the first and most well-known theatre, founded in 1594 in the University of Padua. Italy emerged as a hub for human dissection, attracting visitors from far and wide to witness lectures on anatomy and physiology. Spectators were fascinated by the display of the body undergoing dissection, though most professors use paying assistants to dissect while they lectured from seats above the table. In the 16th century, anatomy theatres grew in popularity combined lectures and dissections to teach anatomical science and philosophy.
In the 17th-century Renaissance, public interest and the printing press expanded access to anatomical knowledge, with artists that attended dissections ,prepared and sold their drawings, contributing illustrations and the Church largely supporting anatomical study.
In Europe, certified anatomists conducted annual public dissections sponsored by city councils with admission fees. Royal or city-appointed anatomists, like Nicolaes Tulp in Amsterdam, led these events. With rising interest from printed anatomy texts, demand for cadavers grew, and anatomy theatres in cities like Padua, Paris, and Amsterdam drew audiences from all social classes. In the 18th century, anatomists like Honoré Fragonard turned dissections into art by preserving and displaying “écorchés” — flayed figures showing muscles and veins by injecting colored wax into blood vessels and varnishing the tissues, with his works still displayed at the Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort. Honoré Fragonard, a master of anatomical art, specialized in creating and preserving “écorchés” (“flayed figures”) models that exposed bones, muscles, and veins. His secret techniques created lasting teaching models when cadavers were scarce.
After the establishment of macroscopic anatomy probably in 19th/20th century, the field expanded into microscopic studies as it became more specialized. Public dissections remained rare until the 19th century, when anatomy gained scientific recognition. Exhibits like BODY WORLDS later revived public interest, though the shift from anatomical theatres to classrooms reduced the number of people who could observe each cadaver.
Frank H. Netter (1906–1991), an American surgeon and a celebrated medical illustrator, combined his artistic talent with medical expertise. Frank Netter began medical illustration to earn extra income but later made it his career. His “Netter’s Atlas of Human Anatomy” (1989) became a global medical reference, and his realistic art helped inspire modern 3D anatomical imaging, marking a shift from the traditional reliance on handmade sketches that lasted until the late 19th century.
In the 20th century, anatomy education advanced with medical imaging. Starting with Roentgen’s X-rays in 1895, techniques like contrast X-rays, tomography, and angiography improved visualization of internal structures and organ systems. In the 1960s, ultrasound emerged, becoming the primary imaging tool in obstetrics for viewing the developing fetus. Echocardiography became a key tool for visualizing cardiac chambers. The 1970s saw major breakthroughs with CT and MRI, aided by computer technology. CT allowed multiple tissue slices to be captured, and the introduction of spiral CT in the 1980s enabled rapid imaging of entire regions, now used for virtual multi-plane dissections.
MRI and CT revolutionized anatomy education by providing high-resolution, 3D views of internal structures. Advances in superconducting magnets improved image clarity, while digital and serial imaging enabled precise, detailed visualization of anatomy.
Digital photography offers immediate evaluation of technical aspects such as sharpness, illumination, color, and structure placement, while serial imaging enables precise capture of anatomical features. Digital publishing enables global access to interactive 3D anatomy models, improving modern anatomy education.
ANATOMICAL REVOLUTION IN INDIA
Anatomy in India evolved from the Paleolithic Era to modern times, with early knowledge from sacrifices, observations, and Indus Valley cave art depicting vital body areas. The Vedas described the heart as a “lotus with nine gates,” a metaphor aligning with modern understanding of its structure and openings (it has nine apertures in total—three in the night atrium, four in the left atrium, and one in each of the right and left ventricles)
The Upanishads, written long before microscopes, provide a remarkably accurate account of embryology. They describe the embryo as a vesicle called “Budbuda” seven days after conception—corresponding to the modern understanding of the blastocyst. Veterinary practice in India dates back 3,000–4,000 years, with formal instruction introduced in the post-Vedic era. Evidence shows veterinary clinics during the reigns of Ashoka and Chandra Gupta Maurya. Veterinarians were called *Salihotriya*, after the horse medicine expert Salihotra, from which the title *Salutri* originated.
The post-Upanishadic period is regarded as the “Golden Age of Indian Medicine,” during which Ayurveda, the science of life (“Ayur” – long life, “Veda” – knowledge), was developed by the pioneers Susruta and Charaka. Susruta’s writings show a deep focus on anatomical structure and function, emphasizing human dissection and even outlining a systematic method for cadaveric study.
The “Susruta Samhita’s section “Sarira Sthana” details ancient India’s advanced study of anatomy, including dissection, organs, and joints. Susruta documented the body’s muscles, bones, lungs, stomach, intestines, bladder, uterus, rectum, blood vessels, and even four pairs of cranial nerves. He also described joints and the effects of their injuries. For these contributions, Susruta is honored as both the “Father of Surgery” and the “Father of Applied Anatomy.”
During British rule in the late 19th century, medical schools were established in major cities such as Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay. Madras Medical College, founded in 1835, was notable for admitting women to address the reluctance of many women to seek care from male physicians. Anatomy was taught by Dr. Mortimer, who used pasteboard models to demonstrate muscles and bones. He also produced “Mortimer’s Manual of Anatomy”, a practical anatomy textbook that preceded “Cunningham’s Manual of Practical Anatomy”. The introduction and development of Medical and Veterinary Anatomy took side by side, in fact, keeping in view the literature the animal anatomy became the base for the foundation of human anatomy and without the knowledge of anatomy any clinician cannot move a single millimetre
In the 21st century, “Anatomage” has emerged as a revolutionary virtual dissection tool. It uses large, interactive tables to display high-resolution 3D models of real human anatomy, derived from frozen and sectioned cadavers. This technology allows students and professionals to explore and study the human body/Animal body in a safe, realistic, and highly interactive environment without relying on physical specimens. Anatomage functions like a “digital operating table”, providing life-size, 3D reconstructions of human anatomy. These models, created from thousands of cryosection photographs, can be dissected virtually, layer by layer, to reveal complex structures in remarkable detail. The platform includes advanced features such as nerve connection mapping, simulation of medical procedures (e.g., catheter insertion), and the ability to import and visualize patient-specific CT or MRI scans.
Its importance lies in its ability to enhance learning and critical thinking by offering a dynamic, hands-on educational experience that goes beyond traditional textbooks and cadavers. Anatomage provides a “cost-effective, safe, and environmentally friendly alternative”, eliminating the need for chemicals or preserved specimens, while also supporting remote and online learning.
In clinical practice, the technology is invaluable for “pre-operative planning”, understanding regional anatomy for anesthesia, and developing procedural skills in diverse scenarios. Its 3D visualization capabilities allow trainees to cut and section the body in any direction, uniting views of structures across three spatial planes for a more comprehensive understanding of anatomy and physiology.
** Author is Professor Anatomy in SKUAST
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